Ateneo - UPO

This course provides an overview of the main aspects of plant biochemistry, with a particular focus on the structure, functions and metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins in plants, as well as the role of enzymes in metabolic processes and responses to environmental stress.
The first part is devoted to the main classes of plant macromolecules, exploring their chemical characteristics, biological functions and contribution to plant growth, development and adaptation. The course will examine storage and structural carbohydrates, including starch and cellulose; the main plant lipids, including fatty acids, membrane lipids and triacylglycerols; and plant proteins, with reference to their nutritional, metabolic and biological functions, bioactive peptides, and methods of protein extraction and characterisation.
A second section explores the characteristics of plant enzymes and their involvement in photosynthesis, respiration, the synthesis and degradation of macromolecules, mineral nutrition, protection against oxidative stress, and defence mechanisms against abiotic and biotic stresses. Examples of key enzymes will be discussed, including RuBisCO, acid phosphatases, SOD, CAT, POD/POX, APX, β-1,3-glucanase, chitinase and the enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of lignin and secondary metabolites. Guided analysis of scientific case studies will enable students to link theoretical knowledge to the interpretation of simple experimental results.

This course aims to provide the fundamental knowledge of plant biochemistry necessary to understand the structure and functions of the main biological macromolecules in plants, and the role of enzymes in metabolic processes, growth and responses to environmental conditions.
By the end of the course, students should be able to:
- Describe and compare the structural characteristics and biological functions of the main plant carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, relating them to the processes of energy storage, cellular organisation, and plant growth and development.
- Explain the role of plant proteins in metabolic and biological processes, recognising the main functional categories, the bioactive potential of certain peptides, and the principles underlying methods for the extraction and characterisation of proteins.
- Relate the characteristics and functions of plant enzymes to metabolic processes, photosynthesis, plant growth and defence mechanisms.
- Interpret the main biochemical mechanisms involved in responses to abiotic and biotic stresses, using examples relating to antioxidant enzymes, defence proteins and enzymes involved in lignification.
- Read and interpret simple experimental data relating to the composition of plant macromolecules, enzymatic activity and the metabolic responses of plants, recognising the relationships between observed results and biochemical processes.
The course is worth 1 CFU and comprises 8 hours of face-to-face lectures, supplemented by independent study of the materials provided by the lecturer.

There are no formal prerequisites.

A basic knowledge of plant biology, general chemistry and biochemistry is recommended, as it will be useful for understanding the structure and function of proteins, enzymatic activity, cellular metabolism, oxidative stress and the main mechanisms by which plants respond to their environment.

The course consists of 8 hours of face-to-face lectures. The lectures include:
- an explanation of the fundamental concepts of plant biochemistry using diagrams, images and representations of molecular structures and metabolic pathways;
- a comparison of the structural and functional characteristics of plant carbohydrates, lipids and proteins;
- a presentation and discussion of the main enzymes involved in metabolic processes, growth and stress responses;
- a guided analysis of graphs, tables and experimental results relating to the composition of plant macromolecules and enzymatic activity;
- a discussion of case studies drawn from the scientific literature concerning salt stress, oxidative stress, defence mechanisms and interactions between plants and microorganisms;
- linking theoretical content with the applications of plant biochemistry in the fields of plant-based food quality, sustainability and biotechnology.
The guided discussion of experimental examples encourages active participation and the ability to link theoretical concepts with experimental observations. There are no laboratory sessions, in-course quizzes or mid-term assessments. Assessment of learning is based exclusively on a final written examination.

Students with disabilities, Specific Learning Difficulties (SLD) or Special Educational Needs (SEN) may request specific services and resources by contacting the Career Development and Coordination and Student Services team and consulting the dedicated page on the University website:

https://uniupo.it/it/servizi/servizi-studenti-disabili-e-dsa

Students with disabilities, SLDs or SEN may also contact the course lecturer to arrange, in consultation with the relevant departments, any adjustments to teaching and assessment methods.

The assessment consists of a final written examination comprising 30 multiple-choice questions, each with a single correct answer. The examination covers all topics in the syllabus and assesses knowledge and understanding of the main plant macromolecules, the functions of enzymes and the biochemical mechanisms involved in metabolic processes and stress responses.
The questions are designed to assess:
- knowledge of the structural characteristics and functions of plant carbohydrates, lipids and proteins;
- understanding of the role of macromolecules in energy storage, cell organisation, growth and development;
- understanding of the principles of plant protein extraction and characterisation;
- the ability to associate specific enzymes with their respective metabolic and physiological functions;
- an understanding of the mechanisms of response to abiotic and biotic stresses;
- the ability to interpret simple data, graphs or experimental results relating to the composition of macromolecules and enzymatic activity.
Assessment is on a scale of 30. To achieve a pass, students must demonstrate a basic but accurate understanding of the main plant macromolecules and enzyme functions, as well as the ability to recognise the fundamental relationships between structure, function and metabolism.
Grades above the pass mark require a more comprehensive and integrated understanding of the topics and the ability to apply this knowledge to simple experimental examples. A grade of distinction requires in-depth knowledge of the subject matter and the ability to critically integrate knowledge relating to macromolecules, metabolic processes and plant responses to stress.
There are no mid-term assessments, written assignments or oral examinations.

Carbohydrates in plants
Structure and classification of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Major monosaccharides and their metabolic roles. Sucrose and the transport of sugars within the plant. Starch as a storage polysaccharide: structure of amylose and amylopectin, synthesis and degradation. Cellulose as a structural component of the cell wall: structure, bonds and properties. Hemicelluloses and pectins. The role of carbohydrates in photosynthesis, respiration, growth and the organisation of plant tissues.

Plant lipids
Structure and classification of lipids. Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids and the relationship between the degree of unsaturation and physical properties. Triacylglycerols as energy reserves, with particular reference to oilseeds. Phospholipids, glycolipids and other membrane lipids: structure and function in the organisation of cell membranes and organelles. Essential fatty acids and lipid metabolism. The role of lipids in germination, cell protection, signalling and response to environmental stresses.

Plant proteins
Amino acids, peptide bonds and levels of structural organisation of proteins. Functional classification of plant proteins: storage, structural, enzymatic, transport and defence proteins. Major plant protein sources, including cereals, pulses, oilseeds and pseudocereals. Amino acid composition, nutritional value, digestibility and bioactive potential of plant proteins. Bioactive peptides and their potential biological activities.
Extraction and characterisation of plant proteins
Principles underlying methods for extracting proteins from plant matrices. Influence of pH, solubility, ionic strength and extraction conditions on the recovery of different protein fractions. General principles of characterisation techniques, including electrophoresis and spectrophotometric methods. Relationship between extraction method, matrix characteristics, protein composition and interpretation of experimental results.

Plant enzymes
Structure and function of enzymes. Substrate specificity, catalysis and the main factors influencing enzymatic activity. Isoenzymes, gene families and regulation of activity. Cellular compartmentalisation into cytosol, chloroplasts, mitochondria, peroxisomes, vacuoles, the apoplast and the cell wall. The role of enzymes in primary and secondary metabolism and in the response to environmental conditions.
Major abiotic stresses: water deficiency or excess, extreme temperatures, salinity, nutritional imbalances, light and pollution. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), their production and potential oxidative damage. The role of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidases (POD/POX), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and glutathione reductase in ROS control systems. Changes in enzyme activity in response to stress and differences between genotypes or cultivars with varying levels of tolerance.
Major biotic stressors: pathogens, parasites, insects and nematodes. Pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins, β-1,3-glucanases, chitinases and peroxidases. Local and systemic defence mechanisms. Oxidative burst and the role of RBOH-type NADPH oxidases, apoplastic SOD and cell-wall peroxidases. Interactions between plants and microorganisms and the role of enzymes in the defence response.

Experimental case studies
Guided analysis of case studies drawn from the scientific literature.

Knowledge and understanding
By the end of the course, students should be able to:
describe the structure and main biological functions of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins in plants;
distinguish between storage and structural carbohydrates and explain the role of starch, cellulose and other major plant polysaccharides;
describe the main categories of plant lipids and relate them to their energy, structural and signalling functions;
recognise the main functional categories of plant proteins and understand their nutritional and biological roles;
explain the fundamental principles of the extraction and characterisation of plant proteins;
describe the characteristics of plant enzymes, their compartmentalisation and the main regulatory mechanisms;
explain the role of enzymes in metabolic processes, growth, and defence and stress response mechanisms.

Ability to apply knowledge and understanding
Students should be able to:
associate the main classes of plant macromolecules with their respective biological functions;
distinguish between the energetic, structural and regulatory functions of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins;
recognise the influence of extraction conditions on the characterisation of plant proteins;
associate specific enzymes with the metabolic and physiological processes in which they are involved;
distinguish between the main enzymatic mechanisms involved in responses to abiotic and biotic stresses;
interpret simple graphs, tables and experimental results relating to the composition of macromolecules and variations in enzymatic activity.

Independent judgement
Students should be able to formulate reasoned assessments of the biochemical significance of simple experimental results concerning the composition of plant macromolecules and enzymatic responses to stress, recognising the importance of experimental conditions in interpreting the results.

Communication skills
Students should be able to use the fundamental scientific terminology of plant biochemistry correctly and to describe the relationships between the structure and function of macromolecules, enzymatic activity and physiological processes in plants.

Learning skills
Students must be able to use the slides, teaching materials and bibliographical examples provided to consolidate the knowledge acquired and to independently explore topics relating to plant macromolecules, enzymes and the biochemical mechanisms of stress response.