Ateneo - UPO

1. The basis of the biological and molecular organization of life 2. The cellular mechanisms of transmission and control of genetic and epigenetic information 3. The flow of information 4. The cellular mechanisms of transmission and control of wild-type and mutated traits 5. Cellular structures: biogenesis, morphology, and functions 6. The cell and the environment, cell signaling, and signal transduction 7. The control of cell proliferation and survival

Bonaldo, Ginelli, Malcovati: Molecole, Cellule e Organismi; EdiSES. Harding, Lodolce: Becker - Il mondo della cellula; Pearson. Alberts, Hopkin, et al: L'ESSENZIALE DI BIOLOGIA MOLECOLARE DELLA CELLULA; Zanichelli. Cooper: La Cellula - un approccio molecolare; PICCIN.

The Biology course aims to provide students with a solid and integrated foundation in the fundamentals of biology, an essential foundation for understanding the physiological and pathological processes addressed in subsequent courses in the biomedical area.

Knowledge of mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology is required, consistent with the preparation promoted by educational institutions that organize educational and teaching activities consistent with the National Guidelines for high schools and the Guidelines for technical institutes and vocational institutes.

Teaching methods include lectures, active learning in the classroom, and distance learning. Lectures and classroom activities: - Lectures supported by PowerPoint presentations with graphic illustrations, mind maps, light and electron microscopy photographs, and animated videos of cellular processes.
- Classroom activities with active student participation (representation of cellular processes, instant polls, and exercise solutions). Online activities and materials (Moodle):
- Teaching materials presented in class.
- Video summaries of the topics covered in class.
- Quizzes, forums, and workshops for learning and self-assessment.
- Optional materials for further study.

Support Activities (Tutoring/Students with Disabilities)
• Students can ask questions and find study support through the Moodle teaching forum.
• Students with learning disabilities (e.g., colorblind, visually impaired, hearing impaired, dyslexic, or physically disabled students) are encouraged to contact the instructor so that they can adjust their teaching materials, in-person and online activities, and assessment methods.

The learning assessment methods are established by Ministerial Decree 418 of 05.30.25 (Annex 2) and can be found at the link: https://www.mur.gov.it/it/atti-e-normativa/decreto-ministeriale-n-418-del-30-05-2025

The program is consistent with the provisions of Ministerial Decree 418 of 30.05.25 (Syllabus_BIOLOGIA) and can be found at the link: https://www.mur.gov.it/it/atti-e-normativa/decreto-ministeriale-n-418-del-30-05-2025
Teaching Unit 1. The Basics of the Biological and Molecular Organization of Life (learning commitment assessed in CFU = 0.75) Describe and interpret: - The tree of life. Organisms and cell theory. The fundamental properties of living matter. Darwin's theory of evolution and the One Health principle. - Viruses: General characteristics. Nucleic acid, capsid, and membranous envelope. The 6 classes of animal viruses. The lytic and lysogenic cycle of a bacterial virus. The life cycle of an animal virus. The life cycle of a retrovirus. How a virus enters and exits an animal cell. DNA and RNA oncogenic viruses. - Notes on the prokaryotic cell: the plasma membrane, cell wall, outer membrane, capsule, fimbriae and pili, and flagella. Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (Gram staining). Eubacteria and archaebacteria. Notes on horizontal gene transfer mechanisms. - The eukaryotic cell. The endomembrane system. Generation of the nucleus, endosymbiosis for the generation of mitochondria. From unicellular to complex multicellular organisms. - The chemical basis of life: atoms and molecules of biological interest. Polar and nonpolar molecules. The properties of water. Covalent and noncovalent chemical bonds. Functional groups. - Structure and function of biological macromolecules: Sugars and carbohydrates. Lipids. Nucleotides and nucleic acids. The Watson-Crick model and the DNA double helix. RNA: structure and functions. Coding and noncoding RNA. Amino acids, the peptide bond, and proteins. Overview of protein structure. Protein domains and active sites. The main post-translational modifications of proteins, such as phosphorylation, acetylation, glycosylation, and the addition of lipids. Overview of enzymes and their function. - Overview of metabolism: the concepts of anabolism and catabolism, condensation and hydrolysis reactions.
Teaching Unit 2: Cellular mechanisms of transmission and control of genetic and epigenetic information (learning commitment assessed at 0.5 credits) Describe and interpret: - The nucleus and genome of eukaryotic cells: Linear chromosomes of eukaryotic cells. The karyotype in humans. Diploidy and homologous chromosomes. Minimal organization of a eukaryotic chromosome. Centromeric and telomeric DNA. - Chromatin: Nucleosomes. DNA packaging and histone proteins. Histone H1 and the 30-nm fiber. Euchromatin and heterochromatin, DNA methylation. Chromatin remodeling. Post-translational modifications of histones and epigenetics (the example of acetylation). Condensins and chromatin folding. - The human genome: Overview of the organization and characteristics of its component sequences. Single sequences, gene families (globins, ribosomal RNAs), repeated sequences, tandemly repeated sequences (minisatellites, microsatellites), interspersed repeated sequences (LINEs, SINEs, and endogenous retroviruses). Mobile DNA elements.
Teaching Unit 3. The Flow of Information (teaching effort assessed at 1.0 credits) Describe and interpret: - DNA replication in prokaryotes and eukaryotes: The semiconservative mechanism. The origins of replication, the formation of the initiation complex, and the replication fork. DNA unwinding: DNA helicases and topoisomerases. Primase and replication initiation. DNA polymerases and error-correction activities. The continuous and discontinuous strand and Okazaki fragments. RNA removal and DNA ligase. The function of telomeres and telomerases. Telomeres and replicative senescence. - Genes: The concept of gene and the anatomy of prokaryotic and eukaryotic genes. Polycistronic and monocistronic genes. Promoters and cis-regulatory elements. - Transcription in prokaryotes: The Lac operon model. - Control of gene expression in eukaryotes: transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational. - Transcription in eukaryotes: The three RNA polymerases (I, II, III). General transcription factors. The TATA box. Proximal and distal promoters (enhancers and silencers). Specific transcription factors: the example of steroid hormone receptors. Initiation, elongation, and termination of transcription in eukaryotes. - RNA maturation: Capping, polyadenylation, splicing, and alternative splicing. Notes on the spliceosome and snRNAs. Ribozymes. RNA editing. Regulation of messenger RNA stability (Deadenylation and uncapping, miRNAs, and RNA interference). - Protein synthesis: The mechanism of translation. The players in translation: mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA. The synthesis of aminoacyl-tRNA. Ribosomes. Synthesis and maturation of rRNA and tRNA. The genetic code, codons, and anticodons. Redundancy, degeneracy, unambiguity, and universality of the genetic code. Initiation, elongation, and termination factors in translation. - Protein maturation: The importance of correct protein folding. Chaperone proteins. Protein folding errors. Notes on prions. - Regulation of the biological activity of proteins: Protein degradation. Ubiquitin-dependent proteasomal degradation. Ubiquitin-like proteins.
Teaching Unit 4. Cellular Mechanisms of Transmission and Control of Wild-type and Mutated Traits (teaching effort assessed in credits = 0.75) Describe and interpret: - Genome variations: Nucleotide substitutions, insertions, or deletions. Gene and chromosomal mutations. The phenomenon of repeat expansion. Overview of the main mechanisms of DNA repair for single- and double-stranded damage. Correlations with cellular aging phenomena. - Alleles: Homozygosity, heterozygosity, and compound heterozygosity. Dominance and recessiveness. Genotype and phenotype. Mendel's laws. Single traits, segregation, and independent assortment. Incomplete dominance and codominance. Multiple alleles (polyallely, ABO blood group system). Pleiotropy. Epistasis (atypical Mendelian relationships). Complete and incomplete association. Physical and genetic maps. Family trees. - Environmentally modulated gene expression: The concept of penetrance and expressivity, polygenic traits, and quantitative inheritance. Genomic imprinting. - Human chromosomes and karyotype: The banding technique. Euploid human karyotype. Alterations in the human karyotype: variations in chromosome number (aneuploidy, polyploidy) and chromosome structure (translocations, inversions, deletions, and insertions). The example of trisomy 21. Autosomal inheritance (dominant and recessive), X-linked inheritance (dominant and recessive), Y-linked inheritance, mitochondrial inheritance.
Teaching Unit 5. Cellular Structures: Biogenesis, Morphology, and Functions (learning commitment assessed at 1.5 credits) Describe and interpret: - Membranes and their components. The fluid mosaic model. The importance of the glycocalyx. Membrane asymmetry. - Transport across the plasma membrane. Osmosis, diffusion, passive transport. Channel proteins and transporters. Active transport. The example of ABC transporters and the Na/K pump. Membrane potential. The action potential. - Protein sorting: The different cellular compartments and their topological relationships. Compartment targeting signals. Regulated transport through nuclear pores, via translocators, or via vesicles. - The nucleus: The nuclear envelope. The nucleolus. Nuclear pores. Nucleoporins. Nuclear transport. Nuclear localization and nuclear export signals. The role of importins, exportins, the Ran protein, and RanGEF and RanGAP. Regulation of nuclear import (examples: steroid hormone receptor, NfkB, SREBP1). Transport of RNA from the nucleus to the cytosol. - Mitochondria: structure and functions. The mitochondrial genome and the flow of information in mitochondria. Introduction to energetics: cellular respiration (from glycolysis to the electron transport chain to ATP synthesis), the molecules involved, and the energy balance of the process. The mitochondrial network and its dynamics: fusion, fission, and regulatory proteins. Transport to the mitochondria: the mitochondrial matrix targeting signal, the TOM, TIM, SAM, and OXA translocators. The role of energy in protein import to the mitochondrial matrix. Protein import to the outer mitochondrial membrane, the inner mitochondrial membrane, and the intermembrane space. - Peroxisomes: structure and functions. Transport to peroxisomes: signals and their receptors. Peculiarities of peroxisome transport. Peroxins and peroxisome biogenesis. The detoxifying action of peroxisomes. Peroxisome-related disorders (Zellweger syndrome). - The secretory pathway: the smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, the cis-Golgi network, the Golgi apparatus, and the trans-Golgi network. Transport to the endoplasmic reticulum: the targeting sequence, SRP and its receptor, the translocon, and the signal peptidase. Modifications of newly synthesized proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum. Glycosylation and its role in protein folding via calnexin and calreticulin. Quality control of the endoplasmic reticulum (examples: calnexin and immunoglobulins). The role of chaperone proteins during translation and transport to organelles. UPR responses and activation of the ERAD system. The example of cystic fibrosis. Constitutive secretion and regulated secretion. - Vesicular trafficking: Vesicle formation. Coating proteins and their roles. Docking, mooring, and fusion of vesicles to target compartments. The role of NSF, SNAPs, SNAREs, and RABs. The role of phosphoinositides. - Endocytosis: Fluid-phase and receptor-mediated endocytosis. Endocytosis of transferrin, LDL, and EGF: differences and peculiarities. Early sorting and recycling endosomes, late endosomes, multivesicular bodies, and lysosomes. Transport to lysosomes and mannose-6-phosphate. Lysosomal dysfunction and storage diseases. Endocytosis in polarized cells. Transcytosis (example of immunoglobulins). Phagocytosis and its functions. - Autophagy: macroautophagy, microautophagy, and autophagy mediated by molecular chaperones. The example of mitophagy. Consequences of alterations in the autophagic pathway. - The cytoskeleton. Microtubules: Structure and function of microtubules. Formation, elongation, and shortening of microtubules. The role of GTP in microtubule stability. The centrosome and the yTuRC complex. Motor and non-motor MAP proteins. Dyneins and kinesins. Examples of alterations in cytoplasmic dyneins. Cilia and flagella. Microfilaments: Structure and function of actin microfilaments. The actin polymerization process: the role of ATP and the Arp2/3 complex. Actin accessory proteins. Linking proteins: the example of dystrophin. Myosins. The sarcomere. Regulation of the actin cytoskeleton by Rho family proteins (Rho, Rac, and CDC42). Cell migration, the example of neutrophil polarization and chemotaxis. - Intermediate filaments: Polymerization, structure, and functions. Keratins and the nuclear lamina. Links between different cytoskeletal elements. Connections between the nucleoskeleton and the cytoskeleton.
Teaching Unit 6. The Cell and the Environment, Cell Signaling and Signal Transduction (teaching effort assessed in credits = 0.75) Describe and interpret: - The extracellular matrix: structure and functions. Degradation of the extracellular matrix. Anchoring to the matrix by integrins. Mechanotransduction and connections with the cytoskeleton. The example of fibronectin. - Cell-to-cell communication: Cell-to-cell recognition and tissue formation (cadherins and CAM). Different types of cell junctions: tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes and hemidesmosomes, gap junctions. - Contact, autocrine, paracrine, endocrine, and synaptic cell signaling. Signal transduction: building blocks and regulatory cascades. Surface receptors and intracellular receptors. The example of nitric oxide and lipid hormones. Ion channel-coupled receptors. - G protein-coupled receptors. Monomeric and trimeric G proteins in signal transduction. Regulatory proteins: GEFs and GAPs. Second messengers and signal amplification. Receptor desensitization, the example of vision. - Receptors with enzymatic activity: receptor tyrosine kinases, the Ras-MAP kinase pathway. Oncogenes and signal transduction. Insulin receptor and EGF receptor signaling. Phosphoinositide signaling.
Teaching Unit 7. Control of cell proliferation and survival (teaching effort assessed with 0.75 credits). Describe and interpret: - The cell cycle: Phases and checkpoints. Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases and their modulation. Phases of mitosis. Entry into mitosis. Chromosome condensation. - Formation of the mitotic spindle: astral, kinetochore, and interpolar microtubules. The mechanoenzymes of mitosis, disassembly of the nuclear lamina, and the dynamics of intracellular organelles. The NDC80 complex. The movement of chromosomes and the mitotic spindle. - Completion of mitosis: The APC/C complex or cyclosome. The degradation of cyclins and securin. Separation of sister chromatids. Cytokinesis. Asymmetric mitosis. - Entry into S phase: the role of growth factors. Cyclin D-Cdk4/6. Phosphorylation of Rb and activation of E2F. Rb in retinoblastoma. Inhibitors of the cyclin-CDK complex. DNA damage and p53 activation for the induction of repair or apoptosis. Proto-oncogenes, oncogenes, and tumor suppressor genes. - Overview of germ cells. Molecular mechanism of meiosis and its genetic consequences. Crossing over. Differences between mitosis and meiosis. Causes of aneuploidy. Meiosis in human male and female gametogenesis. The concept of the stem cell. - Cell death: necrosis and apoptosis. The intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathway. Initiator and executioner caspases. MOMP, cytochrome C, and the apoptosome. Pro- and antiapoptotic proteins (the BCL2 family). Death receptors and signaling pathways.

Knowledge and Understanding
Upon completion of the course, students will be able to: • Describe the structure and function of major biological macromolecules and understand the molecular basis of living matter. • Understand cellular organization and compartmentalization, intracellular trafficking, and interactions between cells and the external environment. • Illustrate the molecular and cellular mechanisms that regulate the expression and transmission of genetic and epigenetic information, identifying their implications for hereditary diseases. Illustrate the fundamentals of cellular communication and signal transduction, with particular attention to the control of cell proliferation and death, as well as the processes regulating mitosis and meiosis in germ cells.
Ability to apply knowledge and understanding
At the end of the course, the student will be able to: • Apply the acquired knowledge to understand normal and pathological cellular processes relevant to the medical field. • Interpret experimental data relating to the structure and function of the cell and its various components, gene regulation, and intracellular and intercellular signaling mechanisms. • Use this knowledge and the acquired methodological approaches for future biomedical studies.
Making judgments
At the end of the course, the student will be able to: 1. critically evaluate information; 2. form informed opinions; 3. make independent decisions.
Communication skills:
At the end of the course, the student will be able to: 1. express their information and knowledge clearly and effectively.
Learning skills
At the end of the course, the student will be able to: to: 1. learn independently and continuously 1. 2. update one's skills and knowledge