Ateneo - UPO

The course will focus on the general mechanisms of systemic physiology, with particular attention to the muscular, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, respiratory, renal, and digestive systems, as well as their adaptations among vertebrates, with special emphasis on comparisons with mammals.

David Randall, Warren Burggren, Kathleen French
Fisiologia animale-Meccanismi e adattamenti
ZANICHELLI

A. Poli, E. Fabbri, C. Agnisola, G. Calamita, G. Santovito, T. Verri
Fisiologia Animale
EdiSES

The course aims to provide up-to-date knowledge on specific aspects of the comparative physiology of the following organ systems: Muscular, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Nervous and sensory, Endocrine, Digestive and Excretory. The relationship between the structure and function of various organs in different animals will be covered, along with an overview of the evolutionary aspects that led to the diverse solutions adopted.

It is recommended that you have a good understanding of comparative anatomy, cell biology, physiology, chemistry, and physics.

Lessons in the classroom, using PowerPoint slides, and critical discussion with the female/male students enrolled in the course

Female and male students with disabilities, Specific Learning Disorders, or Special Educational Needs may request specific services and resources designed for them by contacting the Career Development and Coordination Staff and Student Services
and by consulting the dedicated page on the University website: https://uniupo.it/it/servizi/servizi-studentesse-e-studenti-condizione-di-disabilit%C3%A0-e-dsa. Female and male students with disabilities, Specific Learning Disorders, or Special Educational Needs, once they have contacted the University staff, may contact the instructor in charge of the course regarding the specific exam arrangements and pedagogical aspects.

Oral exam covering the various topics of the course to assess both the level of knowledge and understanding acquired and the ability to present the various concepts clearly and scientifically accurately.
Graded on a scale of 30. Minimum passing grade: 18
In detail:
30-30 L Excellent Excellent and detailed knowledge of biological mechanisms. Excellent ability to make interdisciplinary connections, scientific rigor, and impeccable use of specialized vocabulary. Demonstrates critical thinking and independent judgment.
27–29 Very Good In-depth knowledge of the subject matter. Good ability to analyze and synthesize biological processes. Clear, logically structured presentation using appropriate scientific terminology.
24–26 Good Good knowledge of fundamental topics, but with some limitations regarding details or complex connections. Correct presentation with a predominantly appropriate use of scientific language.
21–23 Fair Fair but largely rote or descriptive knowledge of biological concepts. Limited ability to apply concepts to problems or case studies. Simple but correct language.
19–20 More Than Sufficient Minimal and fragmented knowledge of the course content. Difficulty understanding the implications of the biological mechanisms covered. Uncertain or limited scientific language.
18 Sufficient The student demonstrates only descriptive, fragmented, and basic knowledge of the essential biological concepts of the program. Critical thinking skills are absent or severely limited; there is a clear difficulty in connecting biological mechanisms to one another or in applying them to complex contexts. The language is understandable but exhibits uncertainties, terminological inaccuracies, and a limited use of the specialized scientific vocabulary required at the master’s level.

Review of the fundamentals of functional anatomy and physiology as they relate to the topics covered. Structure-function relationship, homeostasis, feedback, regulation. Concepts of bioelectricity, transport, cellular communication, and muscle properties

Muscular System
Review of the functional anatomy and physiology of muscle tissues: differences between striated skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. Structure of the sarcomere and molecular mechanisms of contraction. Differences in intracellular calcium release in vertebrates (mechanical coupling vs. extracellular calcium-mediated coupling). Pumps and transporters: SERCA, NCX (sodium-calcium exchanger), and parvalbumin in muscle relaxation.
Biochemical adaptations of muscle energy metabolism. Specific adaptations: electric muscles and thermogenic muscles. Biomechanics of jumping in amphibians. Muscle plasticity in hibernating animals. The pectoral muscle of birds as the pinnacle of oxidative metabolism.

Respiratory System
Review of the physical properties of gases: the equation of state for gases, the composition of air, units of pressure, partial pressures, water vapor content, gases in solution, and the solubility coefficients of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Gas diffusion and Fick’s equation. Convective and diffusive transport of gases. Types of respiratory organs and their functional requirements.
Respiration in vertebrates: structure and function of gills, ventilation in fish, aerial and bimodal respiration, lungfish, respiration in amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Anatomy and physiology of the vertebrate respiratory system. Air sacs and parabronchi in birds. Structure and function of the mammalian lung.
Lung volumes and capacities. Alveolar ventilation. Ventilation-perfusion ratio. Pulmonary surfactant. Nervous and chemoreceptor control of respiration.
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. Respiratory pigments. Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve and effects of temperature, pH (Bohr effect), organic phosphates, and carbon monoxide. Fetal hemoglobin. Root effect and physiology of the swim bladder.

Circulatory System
Comparative anatomy and physiology of circulation in the major groups of vertebrates: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Organization of the cardiovascular system. The heart as a pump. Electrical and contractile properties of the myocardium. Pacemaker cells, myogenic and neurogenic systems. Cardiac action potential, ionic basis of excitability, and nervous control of heart rate. Excitation-contraction coupling.
Cardiac output, stroke volume, and contractility. Intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of cardiac function. Pressure-volume diagrams.
Structure and function of arteries, veins, and the vascular endothelium. Colloid-osmotic pressure and the lymphatic system.

Digestive System
Comparative functional anatomy of the alimentary canal in vertebrates (carnivores, herbivores, omnivores).
Adaptations for cellulose digestion: gastric fermenters (ruminants) and post-gastric fermenters (monogastrics).
Nutritional Strategies and Adaptations of the Digestive Tract, Physiology of Digestion and Absorption

Osmoregulation and the Excretory System
Osmoregulators and osmoconformers. Water and ion balance in aquatic and terrestrial environments. Mechanisms of osmoregulation in freshwater and marine vertebrates. Salt glands and other extrarenal osmoregulatory organs.
Anatomy and physiology of the kidney. Structure of the nephron. Glomerular filtration, reabsorption, tubular secretion, and renal clearance. Regulation of renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate. Countercurrent multiplication mechanism. Control of water and sodium reabsorption. Renin-angiotensin system and regulation of extracellular fluid volume.
Acid-base balance. Physiological buffers. Respiratory and renal regulation of pH. Major disturbances of acid-base balance.
Excretion of nitrogenous waste products and physiological adaptations related to habitat: ammoniotelic, ureotelic, and uricotelic animals.

Evolution and Plasticity of Nervous Systems:
From diffuse nerve networks (Cnidarians) to cephalization and bilateral symmetry.
Comparative organization of the central and peripheral nervous systems in the major phyla of invertebrates and vertebrates.
Mechanisms of synaptic transmission and neuronal plasticity in comparative models.
Neuroendocrine Integration (Introduction to Endocrinology): The concept of neurosecretion and the evolution of neuroendocrine systems; the hypothalamic-pituitary axis in vertebrates and its functional homologs in invertebrates (e.g., the sinus gland/organ X system in crustaceans, alate bodies in dipterans/insects).
Physiology of Sensory Systems: Chemoreception: Taste and olfaction in aquatic and terrestrial environments. Vomeronasal receptors; Mechanoreception: Tactile receptors, proprioceptors, and statocysts. The lateral line system in fish and the evolution of the ear in tetrapods. Mechanisms of echolocation, photoreception, and vision: From ciliary and rhabdomeric photoreceptors to the evolution of the compound eye (insects) and the simple eye (cephalopod mollusks and vertebrates). Physiology of visual transduction; Specialized Sensory Perception: Electroreception and magnetoreception in elasmobranch and migratory fish; thermoreception in reptiles (fossette organ).

The course aims to support a logical approach and deductive reasoning, as opposed to a purely mnemonic method, which are essential for mastering the topics covered.
The course encourages students to develop an interdisciplinary approach to learning.
In particular, it aims to:
Knowledge and Comprehension: Understand the functioning and regulation of the major systems; Be familiar with the main physiological adaptations and strategies adopted by different animal groups in response to selective pressures and various living environments; Understand the relationships between anatomical-morphological and biochemical characteristics and physiological functionsAbility to apply knowledge and understanding: Be able to analyze and interpret physiological parameters, recognizing similarities and differences across different taxa; Be able to use animal models in the study of biology and the environmentIndependent judgment: Be able to integrate acquired knowledge to formulate logical deductions and infer the consequences of any alterations in physiological parametersCommunication skills: Ability to describe complex physiological and evolutionary mechanisms using correct scientific terminology, both in writing and orallyLearning skills: Ability to consult scientific literature in the field to explore specific topics related to evolutionary biology and comparative physiology